A comprehensive framework has been developed to quantify carbon emissions from building material production, transportation, construction, operation, and demolition. From this, researchers investigated the life-cycle carbon emissions of zero-carbon buildings and compared the economic feasibility of different carbon-reduction strategies. The results, published in Buildings, suggest that building operation and material production account for most life-cycle carbon emissions.
Study: Life-Cycle Carbon Emission Calculation and Economic Analysis of Zero-Carbon Buildings: A Case Study in China. Image Credit: JohnathanShots/Shutterstock
Quantifying Carbon Emissions Across the Building Life Cycle
Buildings contribute a significant share of global greenhouse gas emissions, making decarbonization a major priority for the construction sector. Although energy-efficient designs have reduced operational energy demand, achieving truly zero-carbon buildings requires addressing emissions throughout the building life cycle.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) provides a systematic framework for quantifying emissions at each stage and identifying the greatest opportunities for carbon reduction.
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Previous studies have primarily focused on quantifying life-cycle carbon emissions rather than assessing the economic viability of different decarbonization strategies. Few studies have compared the long-term costs of on-site renewable energy with green electricity purchases, making it difficult to identify the most cost-effective path to carbon-neutral buildings.
Researchers developed a life-cycle carbon accounting framework based on international ISO standards and Chinese building assessment guidelines. They applied the framework to the Jinan Zero-Carbon Operation Center to quantify emissions across every stage of its life cycle.
Combining Life-Cycle Assessment with Economic Evaluation
The framework covered five stages: material production, material transportation, construction, operation, and demolition.
The case study examined the Jinan Zero-Carbon Operation Center, a 72,431 m2 office building designed to meet multiple sustainability standards. It includes China's Zero-Carbon Building Standard, LEED, WELL, and China's Green Building Standard.
The researchers collected material quantities from engineering drawings and determined transportation distances from supplier locations. They estimated construction emissions from machinery fuel and electricity consumption.
The energy simulation software predicted the building's operational energy demand over its 50-year service life. They also quantified carbon reductions from on-site photovoltaic electricity generation and landscape vegetation.
The researchers evaluated two options: expanding on-site photovoltaic capacity and purchasing green electricity certificates to compare the carbon-neutrality strategies. They used the equivalent annual cost (EAC) method to compare the long-term investment, maintenance, and operating costs of both approaches over the building's lifetime.
Operational Energy and Building Materials Dominate Life-Cycle Emissions
The life-cycle assessment estimated total carbon emissions of 149,974.04 tCO2e over the building's 50-year service life. Building operation was the largest contributor, accounting for 75.5% of total emissions.
Material production emerged as the second-largest emission source at 24.19% of total emissions. Concrete, structural steel, and mortar generated more than 94% of embodied carbon emissions, with concrete contributing the largest share due to its high consumption.
Transportation, construction, and demolition together contributed less than one percent. Within this small share, steel, concrete, and glass dominated transportation emissions owing to their large volumes and long transport distances.
These findings show that reducing operational energy use and embodied carbon should remain the primary focus of zero-carbon building design.
Electricity consumption, such as plug loads, lighting, and cooling systems, dominated operational emissions. The building's photovoltaic systems reduced operational emissions by 29,810 tCO2e, while landscape vegetation sequestered an additional 2989.5 tCO2e.
Despite these measures, operational emissions remained above 113,000 tCO2e, indicating that additional carbon reduction strategies are needed to achieve full carbon neutrality.
The economic analysis identified expanding on-site photovoltaic capacity as the more cost-effective carbon offset strategy. Although photovoltaic systems require a higher upfront investment, they deliver lower long-term costs than purchasing green electricity certificates.
The equivalent annual cost of achieving operational-stage carbon neutrality was $206,589.58 with additional photovoltaics, compared with $316,223.13 using green electricity. Similar cost advantages were observed for full life-cycle carbon neutrality, demonstrating the long-term investment in renewable energy infrastructure.
Implications for Zero-Carbon Building Design and Policy
This study presents a practical framework for evaluating the environmental and economic performance of zero-carbon buildings. By combining life-cycle carbon assessment with long-term economic analysis, it identifies operational energy use and embodied carbon as the primary targets for emission reduction.
The findings also highlight the importance of adopting a whole-life-cycle approach rather than focusing solely on building operation.
The results provide valuable guidance for designers, developers, and policymakers. Improving building energy efficiency, integrating renewable energy systems, and selecting low-carbon construction materials can deliver the greatest reductions in life-cycle emissions.
The economic analysis further shows that expanding on-site photovoltaic generation offers a more cost-effective route to carbon neutrality than purchasing green electricity over the long term.
The authors acknowledge several limitations, including emissions estimates from demolition-stage data based on published assumptions, as measured data remains limited. In addition, the economic analysis did not account for future changes in electricity prices, photovoltaic costs, or carbon markets.
Future studies could incorporate dynamic economic models, measured demolition data, and integrated strategies that combine low-carbon materials, renewable energy systems, and carbon sequestration.
Overall, the study demonstrates that achieving zero-carbon buildings requires an integrated life-cycle strategy that combines carbon accounting, renewable energy, and economic planning.
Journal Reference
Jiang, Y., Wei, C., et al. (2026). Life-Cycle Carbon Emission Calculation and Economic Analysis of Zero-Carbon Buildings: A Case Study in China. Buildings. 16(12). https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/16/12/2395.
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